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Windows Operating System

Windows

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Microsoft Windows is a computer operating system developed by Microsoft. It was first launched in 1985 as a graphical operating system built on MS-DOS. The initial version was followed by several subsequent releases, and by the early 1990s, the Windows line had split into two separate lines of releases:

  • Windows 9x for consumers

  • Windows NT for businesses and enterprises

In the following years, several further variants of Windows would be released:

  • Windows CE in 1996 for embedded systems

  • Pocket PC in 2000 (renamed to Windows Mobile in 2003 and Windows Phone in 2010) for personal digital assistants and, later, smartphones

  • Windows Holographic in 2016 for AR/VR headsets

  • And several other editions

 

Windows | Local Users and Groups

 

Manage Local Users and Group | Application: lusrmgr.msc

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Use the Print Screen Button to open Screen Snipping

 

Activating Print Screen Shortcut | Windows Settings > Easy of Access > Keyboard | Print Screen Shortcut On

Windows Activation | Product Key License

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Windows Activation Mechanism

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  • Evaluation Grace Period

    • License Key: Provided automatically by Microsoft to test their products​

  • Retail Licensing: You only need the applicable retail key

    • License Key: Transferable, more expensive, support from software publisher

  • OEM - Original Equipment Manufacturer

    • License Key: Tied to hardware, non-transferable, cheaper, support from manufacturer

  • ESD - Electronic Software Delivery​

    • License Key: Delivered electronically, can be transferable, pricing varies

  • MAK - Multiple Activation Key Volume Licensing

    • Activation Method: Volume license agreement

  • KMS - Key Management Services Licensing

    • Activation Method: Activates a variety of Microsoft Products for free. You just need a KMS server​

  • AVMA - Automatic Virtual Machine Activation

    • Activation Method: Activates Virtual Windows Servers (using Hyper-V) for free. Windows Host needs a valid license key (paid) and the guest needs a generic public key (free)

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ESD | Electronic Software Delivery​ | Windows Server Standard or DataCenter 

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Activation steps from Evaluation Edition to Retail Edition using ESD License Key, using Powershell.

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  • Check your Current Edition | Command: DISM /online /Get-CurrentEdition

    • If you have an evaluation edition, you need to change it. Your edition will show "Eval" at the end

  • Check your allowed target editions | Command: DISM /online /Get-TargetEditions

    • It will show the possible target editions

  • Salve License Agreement | Command: DISM /online /Set-Edition:<target edition> /GetEula:C:\license.rtf

    • In this step you change to the target edition

  • Change Product Key | Command: DISM /online /Set-Edition:<target edition> /ProductKey:<product key> /AcceptEula

    • Use your ESD License Key acquired to activate your Windows Server

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AVAMA | Automatic Virtual Machine Activation | Windows Server DataCenter 

 

On virtualization hosts, AVMA offers several benefits. Server data center managers can use AVMA to:

 

  • Activate VMs in remote locations

  • Activate VMs with or without an internet connection

  • Track VM usage and licenses from the virtualization host, without requiring any access rights on the virtualized systems

  • AVMA requires a Windows Server Datacenter edition with the Hyper-V server host role installed

  • AVMA does not work with other server virtualization technologies

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How to implement

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  1. On the server that hosts the VMs, install, and configure the Microsoft Hyper-V Server role

  2. Create a virtual machine and install a supported Windows Server operating system on it

  3. After installing Windows Server on the VM, install the AVMA key on the VM. From PowerShell, run the following command:

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  • Check your Current Edition | Command: DISM /online /Get-CurrentEdition

    • If you have an evaluation edition, you need to change it. Your edition will show "Eval" at the end

  • Check your allowed target editions | Command: DISM /online /Get-TargetEditions

    • It will show the possible target editions

  • Salve License Agreement | Command: DISM /online /Set-Edition:<target edition> /GetEula:C:\license.rtf

    • In this step you change to the target edition

  • Change Product Key | Command: DISM /online /Set-Edition:<target edition> /ProductKey:<product key> /AcceptEula

    • You can use a generic key just to change the product, but that is not the activation (e.g.: VDYBN-27WPP-V4HQT-9VMD4-VMK7H)

  • Change AVMA Key| Command: slmgr /ipk <product key>

  • Activate the AVAM Key | Command: slmgr /ato

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AVMA Public Keys

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  • Edition: Datacenter | Key: W3GNR-8DDXR-2TFRP-H8P33-DV9BG

  • Edition: Datacenter Azure Edition | Key: F7TB6-YKN8Y-FCC6R-KQ484-VMK3J

  • Edition: Standard | Key: YDFWN-MJ9JR-3DYRK-FXXRW-78VHK

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System Requirements

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Server Host Version: Windows Server 2022| Server Guest VM: Server 2022; Server 2019; Server 2016; Server 2012 R2

Server Host Version: Windows Server 2019 | Server Guest VM: Server 2019; Server 2016; Server 2012 R2

Server Host Version: Windows Server 2016 | Server Guest VM: Server 2016; Server 2012 R2

Server Host Version: Windows Server 2012 R2 | Server Guest VM: Server 2012 R2

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Activation Errors

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  • Error: 0xC004F069

    • AVMA Activation falling for Windows Server 2022 Eval (Evaluation Edition), When you are traying to activate Windows Server 2022 Virtual Machine (Hyper-V) on Windows Server 2022 DataCenter.

    • Solution: You need to change the Eval status of your edition. Please follow the steps above. The solution are in the initials steps, checking the target edition, saving the license agreement and changing product key.

Windows Server 2022 | Roles and Features

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Activating WiFi (Wireless LAN Services)

 

  • Go to Service Manager​

  • Add roles and features

  • Role-based or feature-based installation

  • Select the "Server"

  • Select nothing in the "Server Roles"

  • In the features, select "Wireless LAN Services"

  • In the confirmation, click in install

  • Wait until finish

  • Restart the server

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If the Wireless LAN Service has not started:

  • Open PowerShell

  • Command: net start WlanSvc​​​​

Creating a VHD Virtual Hard Disk

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Create a Virtual Hard Disk | Windows 11

 

  • Windows Settings | System > Storage > Advanced Storage Settings > Disks & Volumes > Create VHD

  • Create and Attach Virtual Hard Disk

    • Name

    • Location

    • Size

    • Format | VHDX

    • Type | Dynamically

  • Click Create

  • Initialise Disk

    • Partition Style | GPT

  • Click Initialise​

  • Format New Volume

    • Label

    • Drive Letter

    • File System | NTFS

  • Click Advance

    • Allocation Unit Size | Default

  • Click Format

Remote Access / Remote Desktop​​

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What is Remote Desktop?

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Remote desktop is the ability to connect with and use a faraway desktop computer from a separate computer. Remote desktop users can access their desktop, open and edit files, and use applications as if they were actually sitting at their desktop computer. Employees often use remote desktop software to access their work computers when they are traveling or working from home.

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What is RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol)?

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The Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) is a protocol, or technical standard, for using a desktop computer remotely. Remote desktop software can use several different protocols, including RDP, Independent Computing Architecture (ICA), and virtual network computing (VNC), but RDP is the most commonly used protocol. RDP was initially released by Microsoft and is available for most Windows operating systems, but it can be used with Mac operating systems too.

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The RDP protocol opens a dedicated network channel for sending data back and forth between the connected machines (the remote desktop and the computer currently in use). It always uses network port 3389 for this purpose. Mouse movements, keystrokes, the desktop display, and all other necessary data are sent over this channel via TCP/IP, which is the transport protocol used for most types of Internet traffic. RDP also encrypts all data so that connections over the public Internet are more secure.

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Pros and Cons of using RDP

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  • Pros

    • It does not require a VPN

    • It keeps data stored securely on the user's desktop, instead of storing it on cloud servers or on the user's unsecured personal devices

    • RDP enables companies with a legacy on-premises IT setup to allow their employees to work from home

  • Cons

    • It may cause users to experience lag, especially if their local Internet connection is slow

    • It has some serious security vulnerabilities that leave it open to cyber attacks

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Preparing the Client Computer

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  • Open Settings, go to System > Remote Desktop

  • Set Remote Desktop to "On"

  • Make sure you Network Profile is set as "Private"

    • Check the topic about changing the "Network Profile"

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Accessing the Computer

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  • On the host computer, open the Remote Desktop Connection

    • You can type "Remote Desktop Connect" on search bar

  • On the computer field, you can insert the IP or Hostname (if the computer is in the same network)

  • Confirm that you want to connect

  • Inform the "User" and "Password" from the Client Computer

 

Saving Credentials (User and Password) for Quick Connection

 

Due to a security Windows policy, the Windows Defender Credential Guard​​​ does not allow to save credentials anymore. But you can bypass this, without changing any policy or editing any register.

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  • Open the Powershell

  • Check all Credentials stored | Command: cmdkey /list

  • Check the Terminal Server Credentials | Command: cmdkey /list:TERMSRV/*

  • Delete Old Credentials | Command: cmdkey /delete:<TargetName>

    • (Optional) You can delete the Remote Access credentials | Command: cmdkey /delete /ras

  • Create a New credential with Password | Command: cmdkey /generic:<TargetName> /user:<UserName> /pass:<Password>

    • Do Not Use the Command "/add:", or the credential will be blocked by Windows Defender Credential Guard

    • Example: cmdkey /add:<TargetName> /user:<UserName> /pass:<Password>

Timezone (NTP Server)​​

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What is NTP?

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NTP stands for 'Network Time Protocol', a networking protocol that allows devices to synchronize their clocks over the internet. It's used by many devices, including computers, phones, clocks, and payment terminals.

 

What is Clock Strata?

 

NTP uses a hierarchical, semi-layered system of time sources. Each level of this hierarchy is termed a stratum and is assigned a number starting with zero for the reference clock at the top. A server synchronized to a stratum n server runs at stratum n + 1. 

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  • Stratum 0 | These are high-precision timekeeping devices such as 'Atomic Clocks'

  • Stratum 1 | These are computers whose system time is synchronized to within a few microseconds of their attached stratum 0 devices

  • Stratum 2 | These are computers that are synchronized over a network to stratum 1 servers. Often a stratum 2 computer queries several stratum 1 servers

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Hint: The upper limit for stratum is 15. Stratum 16 is used to indicate that a device is unsynchronized.

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List of Top Public Time Servers

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  • NIST Internet Time Service | time.nist.gov

  • Google Public NTP | time.google.com

  • Public Amazon Time Sync Service |time.aws.com

  • Cloudflare NTP | time.cloudflare.com

  • Microsoft NTP server | time.windows.com

  • Apple NTP server | time.apple.com

  • Facebook NTP | time.facebook.com

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How to change the Windows NTP server

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  • Go to 'Control Panel'

  • Select 'Date and Time'

  • Go to 'Internet Time' tab

  • Click on 'Change Settings ...'

  • Insert the new NTP | Server: <NTP-Server>

    • Example: time.nist.gov

CMD Prompt​​

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To access the "Command Prompt" you just need search for "CMD'.

 

Automount | Automatic Mounting of New Disks and Drives

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When you restart your computer and you MicroSD disk is not automatic mounted (showed as a driver), you can activate with these two options.

 

  1. CMD - Open Command Prompt

  2. DISKPART - Open the Windows Diskpart prompt

    • AUTOMOUNT - Display if the automount is enable or disabled

    • AUTOMOUNT ENABLE - Enable the automount

    • AUTOMOUNT DISABLE - Disable the automount

  3. Restart the computer

 

Registry Editor Option

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  1. Search for "Regedit" and open it

  2. Search for HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\mountmgr

  3. "NoAutoMount" DWORD

  4. "0" Enable

  5. "1" Disable​​

Powershell

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To access the "Powershell Prompt" you just need search for "Powershell'.

 

Driver Signing Policy | How to Install Unsigned Windows Drivers on Hardware

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  1. Disabling driver signature enforcement | Command: bcdedit /set NOINTEGRITYCHECKS ON

    1. You will receive the message "The operation completed successfully"

  2. Disabling load test-signed kernel-mode drivers enforcement | Command: bcdedit /set TESTSIGNING ON

    1. You will receive the message "The operation completed successfully"

  3. Restart the Windows

  4. Update your hardware driver using the "Device Manager" (Using Search Bar)

  5. Accept the pop-up and the driver will be installed

  6. After the installation don't forget to turn on the Windows Policy Enforcement using the same commands with "OFF" at the end

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Working with Hyper-V and Windows PowerShell

 

  • Return a list of Hyper-V commands | Command: Get-Command -Module hyper-v | Out-GridView

  • Get Help information about the Get-VM Hyper-V command | Command: Get-Help Get-VM

  • Return a list of virtual machines | Command: Get-VM​​

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Windows Server 2022 | Network profile | Changing Public to Private

 

  • Open PowerShell​

  • Check the network profile by looking at Name, Alias or Index | Command: Get-NetConnectionProfile

  • You can change the Profile using | Command: Set-NetConnectionProfile -InterfaceIndex <Index> -NetworkCategory <Category>

    • Example, Category Private using Name: Set-NetConnectionProfile -InterfaceAlias Network -NetworkCategory Private

    • Example, Category Private using Alias: Set-NetConnectionProfile -InterfaceAlias Ethernet -NetworkCategory Private

    • Example, Category Private using Index: Set-NetConnectionProfile -InterfaceIndex 19 -NetworkCategory Private​

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Network Commands

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  • Resolve-DnsName | Command: Resolve-DnsName -Name <NameDomain> 

    • Example: Resolve-DnsName -Name www.bing.com

    • Functionality: The Resolve-DnsName cmdlet performs a DNS name query resolution for the specified name. This cmdlet is functionally similar to the nslookup tool which allows users to query for names

  • NSLookUp | Command: nslookup <NameDomain>​

    • Example DNS records: nslookup -type=any google.com

    • Example A record: nslookup google.com

    • Example TXT record: nslookup -type=txt google.com

    • Example NS records: nslookup -type=ns google.com

    • Example SOA record: nslookup -type=soa google.com

    • Example MX record: nslookup -type=mx google.com

    • Example debug mode: nslookup -debug google.com

    • Example Reverse DNS: nslookup 8.8.8.8

    • Functionality: Displays information that you can use to diagnose Domain Name System (DNS) infrastructure. Before using this tool, you should be familiar with how DNS works. The nslookup command-line tool is available only if you have installed the TCP/IP protocol.

    • Alternatives: Dig: (Domain Information Groper) / Host (The host command in Linux is a simple utility for performing DNS lookups)

  • Traceroute | Command: tracert <IP-Address>

    • Example: tracert 8.8.8.8

    • Functionality: A traceroute provides a map of how data on the internet travels from its source to its destination.  When you connect with a website, the data you get must travel across multiple devices and networks along the way, particularly routers

  • IPConfig | Command: IPCONFIG​

    • Example "/?" Display the help message with all commands: IPCONFIG /?

    • Example "/All" Display full configuration information (MAC Addresses): IPCONFIG /ALL

    • Example "/Release" Release IPv4 address: IPCONFIG /RELEASE

    • Example "/Renew"Renew IPv4 address: IPCONFIG /RENEW

    • Functionality: IPConfig is a console application program that displays all current TCP/IP network configuration values and refreshes Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol and Domain Name System settings

Storage Drive | Formatting and Allocation

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File System

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A file system is a framework for organizing files in an operating system or external storage device. It lays out what information can be stored and what filenames, permissions, and other attributes can be attached to the files you save.

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Allocation Unit Size

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Allocation Unit Size, also known as "Cluster Size" or "Block Size", refers to the size of the chunks that a solid state drive (SSD) or hard disk drive (HDD) is divided into. When you increase the size of the allocation unit, the "chunk," you decrease the total number of allocation units on your drive. If you decrease the size of the allocation unit, the opposite happens, you increase the number of allocation units on the drive.

 

Example:

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If you have a disk with:

  • Disk: 16 Mb (or 16,384 Kb)

And format it with:

  • Allocation Unit Size for NTFS: 4069 bytes (or 4 Kb)

You will have this number of clusters:

  • Clusters: 16.384 kb / 4 Kb = 4.096 Clusters (or Units)

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If you reformat it to:

  • Allocation Unit Size for NTFS: 32 Kb

You will have this number of clusters:

  • Clusters: 16.384 kb / 32 Kb = 512 Clusters (or Units)

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Important: If a file is too big to fit in a single block, then it will be split and span multiple blocks. If a file is smaller than the block size, then it will be stored in that block, but the entire block volume will be used up. This can result in inefficient storage in some extreme cases.

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Hint: If you are not sure, sure the "default allocation size"

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File Formats

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As Microsoft-developed formats, Windows supports:

 

  • FAT32 (File Allocation Table 32-bit version)

  • exFAT (Extensible File Allocation Table)

  • NTFS (New Technology File System)

 

They also work on Apple devices, though some of these formats are read-only, meaning you won't be able to save files on a Mac, just look at them.

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FAT32

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FAT32, part of the File Allocation Table family of file systems, is the oldest of the three, having been originally created for floppy disk storage. It was introduced in Windows 95, but remains the most common file system today thanks to its usage in memory cards and flash drives.

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FAT32 isn’t as efficient as newer systems, but it is compatible with a wide range of new and old devices. Since it’s been around for so long, FAT32 has become the de facto standard for a lot of machines, so much so that many flash drives are still sold with FAT32 formatting by default for maximum compatibility. 

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  • Works With: Windows, macOS, Linux, game consoles, just about anything with a USB port

  • Storage Limitations: 4GB file size and 8TB partition size limit. 

  • Best For: Storing small files on removable storage for use with a range of devices

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Partition Volume / Allocation Unit Size

  • 32 MB - 64 MB / 0.5 KB (512 Bytes)

  • 64 MB - 128 MB / 1 KB

  • 128 MB - 256 MB / 2 KB

  • 256 MB - 8 GB / 4 KB

  • 8 GB - 16 GB / 8 KB

  • 16 GB - 32 GB /16 KB

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exFAT

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The Extended File Allocation Table (exFAT) file system was introduced in 2006, and added to Windows XP and Vista operating systems via a software update. It exists as a middle ground between the older FAT32 and the more modern NTFS formats. 

 

ExFAT was made to be very portable and optimized for flash drives. It’s lightweight like FAT32, but without the same file size restrictions. That said, it lacks some of the features of the NTFS file system. Overall, it's not as widely compatible as FAT32, but more broadly compatible than NTFS.

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  • Works With: All versions of Windows and modern versions of macOS. Older Linux versions need additional software, but any Linux distribution running Linux Kernel 5.7 or newer—like Ubuntu 22.04—has native exFAT support.

  • Storage Limitations: 128 petabyte maximum file size, 128 petabyte maximum partition size. Lacks some of the newer features that come with NTFS.

  • Best For: Storing and writing larger files you need to use on multiple devices.

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Partition Volume / Allocation Unit Size

  • 7 MB - 256 MB / 4 KB (4096 Bytes)

  • 256 MB - 32 GB / 8 KB

  • 32 GB - 256 TB / 16 KB

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NTFS

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The New Technology File System (NTFS) is Microsoft’s main file system. All recent Windows machines use it by default, and if you install a newer version of Windows on a drive, it will format that drive in NTFS. It differs from FAT32 and exFAT in that it's a journaling file system, meaning it tracks changes before they're written to help with data recovery in the event of a system failure.

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  • Works With: All Windows versions. Read-only on Mac and some Linux distributions. Supported on Xbox One, X/S

  • Limitations: Limited cross-platform compatibility.

  • Best For: Internal drives running newer Windows operating systems or removable storage for Windows PCs.

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Partition Volume / Allocation Unit Size

  • 7 MB - 16 TB / 4 KB (4096 Bytes)

  • 16 TB - 32 TB / 8 KB

  • 32 TB - 64 TB / 16 KB

  • 64 TB - 128 TB / 32 KB

  • 128 TB - 256 TB / 64 KB

  • 256 TB - 512 TB / 128 KB

  • 512 TB - 1 PB / 265 KB

SSD vs HDD

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SSDs and HDDs are both storage devices, but the way they work is quite different. The main difference between a solid state drive (SSD) and a hard disk drive (HDD) is how data is stored and accessed.

 

Pros and Cons

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  • Speed: (SSD) Faster x (HDD) Slower​

  • Price: (SSD) More Expensiver x (HDD) Cheaper

  • Hardware: (SSD) Non-mechanical (Flash) x (HDD) Mechanical (Moving parts) 

  • Resistance: (SSD) Shock-Resistant x (HDD) Fragile

  • Purpose : (SSD) Best for storing Operating Systems and Gaming Apps x (HDD) Best for storing extra Data, like Documents, Photos and Movies

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Speed

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Solid-state drives are much faster than hard disk drives, and the speed difference between the two types is significant.

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On the paper performance:

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  • HDDs: It can copy 30 to 150 MB per second (MB/s)

  • SATA SSDs (Standard): Perform the same action at speeds of 500 MB/s

  • NVMe SSDs (Newer): It can get up to astounding speeds of 3,000 to 3,500 MB/s

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Real performance for an average user:

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SDD

  • Read 3000 MB/s

  • Write 2000 MB/s

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HDD

  • Read 60 MB/s

  • Write 30 MB/s

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Warning: If you are transferring files from an HDD to an SSD (or vice versa), speed will be the bottleneck of the lower speed one (HDD)

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Lifespan

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These days, the lifetime of an SSD is nearly the same as that of an HDD: around five years on average. A bad device may fail after three years, but a good one can last you ten or more. SSDs used to have shorter lifespans, but SSD technology has improved substantially.

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While it’s true that SSD cells can’t be written to as many times as the disk in an HDD, this isn’t really an issue in practice. In theory, if more data is written to a cell, it wears out faster. But thanks to wear leveling, the SSD spreads write operations evenly across all cells to minimize cell death and prolong the lifespan of the drive.

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Additionally, modern SSDs contain spare cells that replace dead cells. This is called bad block management, and it’s why the larger the SSD, the longer its lifespan. If you were to write data to an SSD 24/7, it would still take decades for the drive to break down. SSD vs. HDD lifespan is now about equal. But if you’re worried, you can always run a hard drive test to monitor your drive’s health.

 

Reliability


Since SSDs don’t contain moving parts, they’re less prone to damage if you drop or bang your computer. This also makes SSDs more reliable in extreme environments and in high or low temperatures. You can typically expect a modern SSD to last at least as long as an HDD.

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SDDs fare better than HDDs in laptops because they’re portable; the rough handling of a laptop can more easily damage the intricate moving parts of an HDD.

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You can safely run Windows CHKDSK on an SSD so that it avoids the parts that have decayed and died, but never try to defrag an SSD. Defragmenting the drive writes and rewrites data, which can age your SSD faster. If you’re still working with an HDD, it’s good to know how to defrag on Mac or PC.

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Security and data recovery


If your drive fails, you can usually recover the data on it. This is true with both HDDs and SSDs, though with a few key differences. Since SSDs are newer, many data recovery services charge more to work with them. But since they’re faster, you might be able to recover your data faster than with an HDD.

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SSDs use the TRIM command to destroy data when files are deleted. This is part of how SSDs equalize wear across all cells, but it also makes it harder to recover deleted files. You should keep this in mind when considering SSD or HDD for storage. Data recovery for SSDs is best handled by professionals in a lab with specialized equipment and software.

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Whichever type of drive you use, the best way to protect your data is with regular backups to external storage devices or cloud storage. Look up how to clone your hard drive so you have everything handy in case of an emergency. You won’t need to worry about SSD data recovery when you already have a fresh copy.

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Capacity

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If you’re concerned about how much information you can store on each type of drive, don’t worry. There are no differences in storage capacity. You can get HDDs and SSDs from as small as 128 GB up to 20 TB or more. However, one of the biggest differences between HDDs and SSDs is the price per gigabyte, so the SSD will be much more expensive.

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Prices


The market for flash storage is volatile and varies based on supply and demand. While SSDs are much cheaper than they used to be, there is still a significant price difference.

 

  • 1 TB internal HDD costs roughly $60

  • 1 TB internal SSD averages around $120

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Additional Information

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  • Energy Consumption: With no mechanical components, SSDs draw less power than their spinning counterparts. That means better battery life, and it’s one reason why most newer laptops come with SSDs. Hard disk drives require more power because they’re constantly in motion.

  • Noise: You’re probably familiar with the sound of an HDD spinning up as it gets to work — 7200 RPMs to be exact — or perhaps the clicking sound that indicates an impending hard drive failure. SSDs, by contrast, don’t have moving parts and are completely silent.

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Best For

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HDD:

  • Those looking to back up and store large amounts of data that they don’t need to access frequently

  • People with modest computing needs

  • Those buying or building a PC on a budget

 

SSD

  • Those who use resource-intensive programs like multimedia editing suites

  • Gamers who want to play anything new

  • Anyone who opens and copies files from their drive often

References: Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org); Google (www.google.com); Oracle (www.oracle.com); Raspberry PI (www.raspberrypi.org); Microsoft (www.microsoft.com); CloudFlare (www.cloudflare.com)

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